DNA

1. What is DNA?
   Deoxyribonucleic Acid
   

2. What are the 4 bases?
   A for adenine, T for thymine, C for cytosine and finally G for guanine, so the bases are ATCG.
   

3. What 2 pieces of information did the scientists need to solve the elusive structure of DNA?
   Phosphate backbone was on the outside with bases on the inside, the molecule was a double helix
   

4. What are the specific base pairs?
   A & T, G & C
   

5. How does the pairing rule affect the shape and structure of DNA?
   A&T makes a 2 hydrogen bond and G&C makes a 3 hydrogen bond, which directs the structure and shape of the DNA molecule when its being copied.
   

6. What does the DNA do during cell division?
   It is copied.
   

7. How many base pairs does E. Coli have? How long does it take to replicate? How is the DNA packaged in the cell?
   It has 4,639,221 base pairs, takes 40 minutes to replicate, and it’s inside the genetic makeup of the cell.
   

8. How many base pairs does Human DNA have? How long does it take to replicate? How is the DNA packaged in the cell?
   Humans have3 billion and more base pairs, they take 12 to 24 hours, and it is packaged in the nucleus.

RNA

1. What is RNA? How different is it from DNA?
   RNA is the copy of the DNA. Its different because it is a single strand, not a double helix like DNA, and instead of thymine (T), it is uracil (U).
   

2. How are the RNA messages formed?
   RNA messages are formed by the grouping together of 3 of the letters to create a codon, which line up and form a chain of codes that create a message.
   

3. How are the RNA messages interpreted?
   Ribosomes read the messages and then attach the amino acids together to make up a protein.

   
   
   
   

Cells

1. Describe cell cycle.
First the cell starts to grow then chromosomes duplicate and divide while the cell continues to grow. The cell reaches a certain size that is suitable for it to be able to have cell division.
*chromosomes are stored in the cell nucleus
*CDK and cyclin are the key molecules that control and coordinate cell division
2. What is nuclear division?
Nuclear division is the division of the nucleus and genetic information into more than one cell, usually through mitosis or meiosis.
3. What is interphase?
Interphase is when the cell or nucleus is not in mitosis.
4. Cytokinesis?
Cytokinesis is the stage in meiosis in which the cytoplasm of the cell is divided after the nuclear division.
5. Homologous chromosomes?
They are the pair of chromosomes that have the same genetic sequencing because they come from the same parent cell.
6. Phases of mitosis (5 of them).
There is Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Interphase.
7. Phases of meiosis and how it is different from mitosis.
Early prophase
Late prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Second Telophase
*meiosis is different from mitosis because the cell goes through 2 divisions instead of just one and results in 4 daughter cells instead of only 2.
*cells that go through mitosis are called diploid cells because it has 2 complete sets of chromosomes. cells that go through meiosis are only have a single set of chromosomes that is completed when the female and male gamete are united.
8. Describe the process and purpose of crossing over.
Crossing over occurs when the sperm and egg chromosomes pair up and swap genetic information, reducing the number of chromosomes to a complete set. It is important because it makes the number of chromosomes the normal number and also allows the genetic information to remain present in the cell.

Coral Reefs

Fringing Reef

Barrier Reef

Atoll

1. How is each reef structure formed?
A fringing reef is formed when coral larvae settles on a hard surface and begins to grow. As the corals grow, they create their own hard bottoms, which creates a place for more coral to grow.
Barrier reefs are formed when sediment and coral rubble create a building foundation for the reef. Sea grass and seaweed beds, soft corals, and patches of cover coral are mixed in with the coral rubble to create a continuously growing bottom layer.
Atolls first start out as a fringing reef around a volcanic island. The reef gets wider and deeper as the island slowly sinks and eventually the reef flat becomes a lagoon and the fringing reef morphs into a barrier reef. When the island disappears completely the ring of growing reef left behind is the atoll.

2. Where is each reef structure found?
Fringing reefs are found on rocky shorelines close to land.
Barrier reefs, like fringing reefs, are found along the coast but farther out and separated by a lagoon.
Atolls are found on top of sunken volcanic islands which lie underneath a layer of calcium carbonate.

3. What is the trophic structure of a reef?
They are usually revolve around nutrient recycling. The zooanthellae take the coral nitrogen and phosphorus waste products and use the sun to create organic compounds which the corals need to survive. Without this process, corals would not be able to grow to their vast sizes since the water is usually poor in nutrients.

4. How does the location and type of reef influence the trophic structure?
Fringing reefs are close to shore so the water in which they live in gets run off and a mixture of nutrients and pollution from the land. Barrier reefs, however, are farther out so they have access to water from the lagoon and the deeper ocean. Additionally, the fish and other organisms that live in the reefs add and subtract from the nutrients in that community.

5. Give examples of the types of corals found on reefs.
Soft corals, hard corals, fast-growing corals, branching corals,and many more.

6. Give examples of competition, predation, and grazing.
Competition is an overgrowth or direct attack of one coral to another in their fight for growing space. A sea urchin is an example of predation since it eats and completely kills coral. Many types of fish eat coral polyps, but they don't eat enough to kill the whole organism. Grazing keeps coral populations in check.

Coral Reefs

The blue highlights show the barrier reefs that Saipan has. The yellow highlights show the fringing reefs.Similarities:
- have reef flats and slopes
- grow on hard surfaces
- have coral growing on them
- fish live in the reefs

Differences:
- barrier reefs grow away from shore, fringing reefs grow close to shore
- atolls are built on submerged volcanoes that are usually dormant
- barrier reefs are separated lagoons, and atolls are surrounded by atolls.

Dissections

Digestive System: Food is transported into a muscular stomach, found roughly in the midpoint of the visceral mass. The bolus is then transported into the caecum for digestion. The caecum, a long, white organ, is found next to the ovary or testis. In mature squid, more priority is given to reproduction and so the stomach and caecum often shrivel up during the later stages of life. Finally, food goes to the liver (or digestive gland), found at the siphon end of the squid, for absorption. Solid waste is passed out of the rectum

Circulatory System : Squid have three hearts. Two branchial hearts, feeding the gills, each surrounding the larger systemic heart that pumps blood around the body. The hearts have a faint greenish appearance and are surrounded by the renal sacs - the main excretory system of the squid. The kidneys are faint and difficult to identify and stretch from the hearts (located at the posterior side of the ink sac) to the liver. The systemic heart is made of three chambers, a lower ventricle and two upper auricles.

Nervous System: The giant axon of the squid, which may be up to 1 mm in diameter, innervates the mantle and controls part of the jet propulsion system.

Excretory System: The excretory system of a squid if also known as a metanephridium, which consists of a ciliated funnel opening into the body cavity and to a duct which opens to its exterior. These ciliated tubes assist in the pumping out waste products.

Reproductive System: In female squid, the ink sac is hidden from view by a pair of white nidamental glands, which lie anterior to the gills. There are also red-spotted accessory nidamental glands. Both of these organs are associated with manufacture of food supplies and shells for the eggs. Females also have a large translucent ovary, situated towards the posterior of the visceral mass.

Male squid do not possess these organs, but instead have a large testis in place of the ovary, and a spermatophoric gland and sac. In mature males, this sac may contain spermatophores, which are placed inside the mantle of the female during mating.

Integumentary System: The integumentary system of a squid is enclosed in the mantle, which has two swimming fins along each side. These fins are not the main source of their motility. The skin of the squid is covered in chromatophores, which allows the squid to change color to suit its environment. The underside of the squid is also found to be lighter than the topside, in order to provide camouflage from both prey and predator (countershading).
Under the body are openings to the mantle cavity, which contains the gill and openings to the excretory and reproductive systems. At the front of the mantle cavity lies the siphon, which the squid uses for locomotion through means of jet propulsion. This is done by sucking water into the mantle cavity and quickly expelling it out of the siphon in a fast, strong jet. The direction of the siphon can be changed in order to suit the direction of travel.
Inside the mantle cavity, beyond the siphon, lies the visceral mass of the squid, which is covered in a thin skin. Under this are all the major internal organs of the squid.

Body Plan: The head end of the squid bears 8 arms and two tentacles, each a form of muscular hydrostat containing many suckers along the edge. These tentacles do not grow back if severed. In the mature male squid, one basal half of the left ventral tentacle is hectocotylised — and ends in a copulatory pad rather than suckers. It is used for intercourse between mature males and females.

The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of chitin [1] and cross-linked proteins, and is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. the beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species.[2] Captured whales often have squid beaks in their stomachs, the beak being the only indigestible part of the squid. The mouth contains the radula (the rough tongue common to all molluscs except bivalvia and aplacophora).

The eyes, found on either side of the head, each contain a hard lens. The lens is focused by moving, much like the lens of a camera or telescope, rather than changing shape like a human eye.

The majority of squid are no more than 60 cm long, although the giant squid may reach 13 m in length. In 2003, a large specimen of an abundant[3] but poorly understood species, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (the Colossal Squid) was discovered. This species may grow to 14 m in length, making it the largest invertebrate. It also possesses the largest eyes in the animal kingdom. Giant squids are often featured in literature and folklore with a frightening connotation. The Kraken is a legendary tentacled monster possibly based on sightings of real giant squids.

In February 2007, a Colossal Squid weighing 495 kg (1,091 lb). and about 10 metres (33 feet) long, was caught by a New Zealand fishing vessel off the coast of Antarctica.

Digestive system: Starfish have a complete digestive system with their mouth on the underside and the anus on top. Food enters into the starfish through the mouth, gets digested and then the waste comes out the top. The starfish can also extend its stomach so the food is liquidated and digested outside of the body.

Circulatory system: There are three systems. Perivisceral coelom (outside of various organs), Water vascular system (tube feet extended throughout each arm), and Hemal system (closest resemblance to a circulatory system). The hemal system extends though each arm as well and is most effective way to transport the nutrients from the digestive tract.

Nervous system: Made up of a radial nerve through each arm and a nerve ring in the center of the starfish. The nerve ring doesn't really do much and it is up to the radial nerves to somehow coordinate 5 different arms.

Excretory system: No formal one

Reproductive system: Separate sexes with gonads. The sperm fertilizes the eggs out in the ocean.

Integumentary system: Tough skin protecting the vital organisms. Some species have spikes for additional protection.

Body plan: Radial symmetry, no head.

Starfish live in temperate and tropical waters. They are bottom dwellers but can live in a range of depths, mostly shallow marine environments.

Digestive system: A mollusk (clam) feeds itself through a siphon system which leads to its mouth. It then goes to a digestive gland and onto the intestines.

Circulatory system: A heart, blood vessels, and obviously blood.

Nervous system: No formal nervous system but it does have ganglia which monitors the nerve impulses.

Excretory system: Clams have anuses and an organ called the nephridium that gets rid of the waste.

Reproductive system: A gonad. The clam is either male or female and reproduces sexually.

Integumentary system: A hard outer shell and a soft body. It uses a muscular foot for movement.

Body plan: A thick, soft, and fleshy body is protected by the outer shell. It ranges in size (anything from a few centimeters to multiple feet in width. Clams also have bilateral symmetry.

Clams live in the water, such as bays, estuaries, mud flats, sand, and can tolerate a range of salinities (from brackish to saltwater conditions). Clams have hatchet-footed, which makes them a mollusk.

The digestive system of a crayfish is simple in comparison to those of vertebrates, but more complex than other invertebrates. The tract is composed of the foregut (enlarged stomach/specialized grinding), the midgut, and the hindgut (leads to anus/regulates salt and water). The digestive gland excretes an enzyme that helps in digestion and absorbs nutrients.

The circulatory system is made up of the heart and three arteries extending to the dorsal, anterior, and posterior areas of the body. The heart pumps the blood across the gills which absorbs the oxygen from the water and sends it back to the heart and adjoining arteries.

The crayfish's nervous system is composed of a ventral nerve cord which has fused with segmental ganglia and the supresophageal and subesophageal ganglia.

The excretory organs, which are part of the excretory system, are located at the base of the crayfish's second antenna.

Crayfish have separate male and female sexes. Mating happens in the spring after the female as molted.

The crayfish has a jointed exoskeleton which they shed to allow growth.

The body is divided into two parts: the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax has sensory, feeding, and locomotr functions and the abdomen has locomotor and visceral functions.

Crayfish typically live in freshwater ecosystems (lakes and streams), water logged fields, stagnant ditches, subterranean cave waters. Basically any where there is muddy water which many places to hide. The crayfish is definitely an arthropod.

Sea Floor Spreading

What is sea floor spreading?
Sea floor spreading is the process where a new sea floor is formed as it moves away from spreading centers in mid-ocean ridges.
What are some of the major land forms that are created from plate movement?
Mountains, volcanoes, trenches, and the 7 continents.
How were the Mariana Islands formed?
By underwater volcanoes along the Marianas Trench. The northern islands consist of high volcanic islands and the southern islands consist of raised-limestone.
What evidence exists today that the plates are still moving and that the islands are ancient volcanoes?
The movements of the Philippine plate under the Pacific plate, which are above the asthenosphere causes earthquakes and minute tremors.
What is an atoll?
An atoll is a coral reef that develops as a ring around a central lagoon.
Why are atolls mainly found on the Pacific?
The Pacific Oceans warm tropical climate and coral reefs are the main reasons why Atolls establish themselves mainly in the Pacific.

FISH SLIDES

Homework: Sea Cucumber

Homework: Sea Cucumber

Name of organism:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Echinodermata
Class: Holothuroidea
Order:Apodacea
Family: Cucumariidae
Genus: Paracucumariatricolor
Specie: Sea Apple


Habitat (where in the ocean does it live):
- Sea apples live on hard material, such as coral reefs, in water as deep as 40 feet (12 meters) in areas with a current.
Food source:
- Sea apples eat plant plankton.
Description of life cycle (egg to death):
- Sea apples have separate sexes. Males release sperm and females release eggs into the water, where they unite and where the larvae develop. The larvae transform into young sea apples that develop into adults.
How does it move (if it moves):
- The sea cucumber moves by expelling sand through its body.

Unique characteristics:
- Sea apples are colorful sea cucumbers about 7 inches (18 centimeters) long. They usually are purple. Three rows of tube feet run along the bottom side of the animal. The top side has two rows of tube feet as well as small scattered tube feet. The body is curved so that the mouth and anus point upward. The ten tentacles are bushy purple to red and have white tips. The pieces of the body wall skeleton are rounded, smooth plates with a few holes.

Role in the ecosystem:
- Its role in the ecosystem is to cleanse the sand on the sandy sea floor.

cellular respiration and photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis

Prokaryote Cell Thing

Ribosomes
Ribosomes give the cytoplasm of bacteria a granular appearance in electron micrographs. Though smaller than the ribosomes in eukaryotic cells, these inclusions have a similar function in translating the genetic message in messenger RNA into the production of peptide sequences (proteins).

capsule
This layer of polysaccharide (sometimes proteins) protects the bacterial cell and is often associated with pathogenic bacteria because it serves as a barrier against phagocytosis by white blood cells.

cell wall
Composed of peptidoglycan (polysaccharides + protein), the cell wall maintains the overall shape of a bacterial cell. The three primary shapes in bacteria are coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod-shaped) and spirillum (spiral). Mycoplasma are bacteria that have no cell wall and therefore have no definite shape.

plasma membrane
ra This is a lipid bilayer much like the cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane of other cells. There are numerous proteins moving within or upon this layer that are primarily responsible for transport of ions, nutrients and waste across the membrane.


Flagella
The purpose of flagella (sing., flagellum) is motility. Flagella are long appendages which rotate by means of a "motor" located just under the cytoplasmic membrane. Bacteria may have one, a few, or many flagella in different positions on the cell.

cytoplasm
This contains many of the protiens, molecules, and important substances that the cell needs, as well as keeping the organelles seperate. It is similar to air for us; it has many essential ingredients for continued existence; it provides a medium in which the organelles can exist (living in a vacum is not very easy), and pretty much fills up space.

Mesosome
One structure not shown in our prokaryotic cell is called a mesosome. Not all prokaryotic cells have these. The mesosome is an elaboration of the plasma membrane--a sort of rosette of ruffled membrane intruding into the cell.

Questions

1. What Is the purpose of the Bacterial Flagellum?

2. What is the name of a part of the cell that is rare to find in Prokaryote?

3. What is a cell wall?